Deadly flu spreads to Asia, Middle East

Cases confirmed in New Zealand, Israel after officials raise alert level

msnbc.com staff and news service reports

updated 6:06 a.m. ET April 28, 2009

Governments around the world took steps Tuesday to curb the spread of a new strain of flu that has killed up to 149 people in Mexico as the virus was confirmed in Asia and the Middle East.

No one has died outside Mexico but 50 infected people have been found in the United States, six in Canada and three across the Atlantic in Spain and Scotland, prompting the World Health Organization to raise its alert level for the outbreak.

New Zealand's health minister and an Israeli hospital on Tuesday reported the first confirmed cases of swine flu to hit the Middle East and the Asia-Pacific regions।

New Zealand Health Minister Tony Ryall reported 11 cases. Those infected are members of group of students and teachers who returned recently from a trip to Mexico.

The other case is in Netanya, an Israeli city north of Tel Aviv. Laniado Hospital's medical director said laboratory tests confirm swine flu in a 26-year-old patient who recently returned from Mexico.

A 51-year-old South Korean woman also tested positive for swine flu Tuesday after traveling to Mexico but officials said final tests were still necessary. All 315 others on the same flight from Los Angeles were being tested but none have turned up positive, officials said.

In Asia, financial markets were on edge over the risk the flu could develop into a pandemic and kill off fragile signs of recovery in the global economy.

The number of U.S. cases doubled to 50 early Tuesday, the result of further testing at a New York City school, although none was fatal. Other U.S. cases have been reported in Ohio, Kansas, Texas and California. The U.S. also ordered stepped up border checks in neighboring states.

Travel alerts
Governments around the world have taken steps to tighten monitoring of their airports or advised against non-essential travel to Mexico.

Britain, France and Germany issued travel alerts for Mexico. Japan advised its citizens in Mexico to consider returning home soon, saying they might find themselves unable to leave and not be able to get adequate medical care.

The swine flu bug is curable if treated quickly with antiviral medicine but no one is naturally immune. The WHO has lifted its pandemic alert to phase 4, meaning there is sustained human-to-human transmission of the virus causing outbreaks in at least one country. It also indicates the risk of a deadly global outbreak.

"At this time, containment is not a feasible option," said Keiji Fukuda, assistant director-general of the World Health Organization.

The virus poses a potentially grave new threat to the U.S. economy, which was showing tentative early signs of a recovery. A widespread outbreak could batter tourism, food and transportation industries, deepening the recession in the U.S. and possibly worldwide.

Putting an alert at phases 4 or 5 signals that the virus is becoming increasingly adept at spreading among humans. That move could lead governments to set trade, travel and other restrictions aimed at limiting its spread.

Phase 6 is for a full-blown pandemic, characterized by outbreaks in at least two regions of the world.

The last pandemic, a Hong Kong flu outbreak in 1968, killed about one million people around the world.

'Critical moment'
In Mexico, nearly 2,000 people believed to be infected. Mexican Health Secretary Jose Angel Cordova said the epidemic was entering an extremely dangerous phase, with the number of people infected mushrooming even as authorities desperately ramped up defenses.

"We are in the most critical moment of the epidemic. The number of cases will keep rising, so we have to reinforce preventative measures," Cordova said at a news conference.

It could take four to six months before the first batch of vaccines are available to fight the virus, WHO officials said.

Russia, Hong Kong and Taiwan said they would quarantine visitors showing symptoms of the virus amid global fears of a pandemic.

President Barack Obama said the outbreak was reason for concern, but not yet "a cause for alarm."

Dr. Richard Besser, acting director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, said that so far the virus in the United States seems less severe than in Mexico. Only one person has been hospitalized in the U.S.

"I wouldn't be overly reassured by that," Besser told reporters at CDC headquarters in Atlanta, raising the possibility of more severe cases in the United States.

"We are taking it seriously and acting aggressively," Besser added. "Until the outbreak has progressed, you really don't know what it's going to do."

U.S. customs officials began checking people entering U.S. territory. Millions of doses of flu-fighting medications from a federal stockpile were on their way to states, with priority given to the five already affected and to border states. Federal agencies were conferring with state and international governments.

"We want to make sure that we have equipment where it needs to be, people where they need to be and, most important, information shared at all levels," said Janet Napolitano, head of the Homeland Security Department.

"We are proceeding as if we are preparatory to a full pandemic," Napolitano said.

Schools shut
She said travel warnings for trips to Mexico would remain in place as long as swine flu is detected.

Mexico canceled school at all levels nationwide until May 6, and the Mexico City government said it was considering a complete shutdown, including all public transportation, if the death toll keeps rising. Labor Secretary Javier Lozano Alarcon said employers should isolate anyone showing up for work with fever, cough, sore throat or other signs of the flu.

Swine flu at a glance Key developments on swine flu outbreaks: — Deaths: 149 suspected, all in Mexico. — Sickened: Nearly 2,000 in Mexico, suspected or confirmed; 48 confirmed in U.S. including, 28 at one school; 13 suspected in New Zealand; 6 confirmed in Canada; 7 suspected in Spain; 1 suspected in France; 1 suspected in Israel. — Locations in Mexico: 17 states, including Mexico City, Mexico State, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Baja California and San Luis Potosi. Some, including Oaxaca, Mexico City and Baja California, have tourist areas, but authorities have not said where in these states the outbreaks occurred. — Locations in U.S.: California, Kansas, New York, Ohio and Texas. — Safety measures in Mexico: In Mexico City, surgical masks being given away on the subway system, public events canceled, schools and public venues closed and church services postponed. President Felipe Calderon has assumed new powers to isolate infected people. — Safety measures worldwide: Airports screening travelers from Mexico for flu symptoms. China, Russia and Taiwan plan to put anyone with symptoms under quarantine. Hong Kong and South Korea warn against travel to Mexico City and three provinces. Italy, Poland and Venezuela advised citizens to postpone travel to affected areas of Mexico and the United States. — Safety measures in U.S: Roughly 12 million doses of Tamiflu being moved from federal stockpile for delivery to states. Travelers at border being asked about travel to flu-stricken areas. St. Francis Preparatory School in New York, where eight cases are confirmed, will be closed Monday and Tuesday. Source: The Associated Press

Amid the warnings, the Mexican government grappled with increasing criticism of its response. At least two weeks after the first swine flu case, the government has yet to say where and how the outbreak began or give details on the victims.

The health department lacked the staff to visit the homes of all those suspected to have died from the disease, Cordova said.

Cordova said 1,995 people have been hospitalized with serious cases of pneumonia since the first case of swine flu was reported April 13. The government does not yet know how many were swine flu.

He said tests show a 4-year-old boy contracted the virus before April 2 in Veracruz state, where a community has been protesting pollution from a large pig farm.

The farm is run by Granjas Carroll de Mexico, a joint venture half owned by Virginia-based Smithfield Foods, Inc. Spokeswoman Keira Ullrich said the company has found no clinical signs or symptoms of the presence of swine flu in its herd or its employees working anywhere in Mexico.

Source: The Associated Press, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention •

The best way to keep the disease from spreading, Besser said, is by taking everyday precautions such as frequent handwashing, covering up coughs and sneezes, and staying away from work or school if not feeling well. He said authorities are not recommending that people wear masks at work because evidence that it is effective "is not that strong."

China, Russia and Ukraine were among countries banning imports of pork and pork products from Mexico and three U.S. states that have reported swine flu cases, while other countries, such as Indonesia, banned all pork imports.

The CDC says people cannot get the flu by eating pork or pork products.

Dieters’ best intentions hijacked by their brains

Yummy snacks trigger vicious cycle of cravings, former FDA chief warns

	Chocolate cookies have something in common with crack. Neuroscientists increasingly report that fat-and-sugar combinations light up the brain's dopamine pathway — its pleasure-sensing spot — the same pathway that conditions people to alcohol or drugs.
Stephen Bonk / featurepics.com stock

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updated 4:06 p.m. ET April 20, 2009

WASHINGTON - Food hijacked Dr. David Kessler's brain.

Not apples or carrots. The scientist who once led the government's attack on addictive cigarettes can't wander through part of San Francisco without craving a local shop's chocolate-covered pretzels. Stop at one cookie? Rarely.

It's not an addiction but it's similar, and he's far from alone. Kessler's research suggests millions share what he calls "conditioned hypereating" — a willpower-sapping drive to eat high-fat, high-sugar foods even when they're not hungry.

In a book being published next week, the former Food and Drug Administration chief brings to consumers the disturbing conclusion of numerous brain studies: Some people really do have a harder time resisting bad foods. It's a new way of looking at the obesity epidemic that could help spur fledgling movements to reveal calories on restaurant menus or rein in portion sizes.

"The food industry has figured out what works. They know what drives people to keep on eating," Kessler tells The Associated Press. "It's the next great public health campaign, of changing how we view food, and the food industry has to be part of it."

He calls the culprits foods "layered and loaded" with combinations of fat, sugar and salt — and often so processed that you don't even have to chew much.

Overeaters must take responsibility, too, and basically retrain their brains to resist the lure, he cautions.

"I have suits in every size," Kessler writes in "The End of Overeating." But, "once you know what's driving your behavior, you can put steps into place" to change it.

Jonesing for junk food

At issue is how the brain becomes primed by different stimuli. Neuroscientists increasingly report that fat-and-sugar combinations in particular light up the brain's dopamine pathway — its pleasure-sensing spot — the same pathway that conditions people to alcohol or drugs.

Where did you experience the yum factor? That's the cue, sparking the brain to say, "I want that again!" as you drive by a restaurant or plop before the TV.

"You're not even aware you've learned this," says Dr. Nora Volkow, chief of the National Institute on Drug Abuse and a dopamine authority who has long studied similarities between drug addiction and obesity.

Volkow is a confessed chocoholic who salivates just walking past her laboratory's vending machine. "You have to fight it and fight it," she said.

Conditioning isn't always to blame. Numerous factors, including physical activity, metabolism and hormones, play a role in obesity.

And the food industry points out that increasingly stores and restaurants are giving consumers healthier choices, from allowing substitutions of fruit for french fries to selling packaged foods with less fat and salt.

Why is it so hard to say no?

But Kessler, now at the University of California, San Francisco, gathered colleagues to help build on that science and learn why some people have such a hard time choosing healthier:

• First, the team found that even well-fed rats will work increasingly hard for sips of a vanilla milkshake with the right fat-sugar combo but that adding sugar steadily increases consumption. Many low-fat foods substitute sugar for the removed fat, doing nothing to help dieters eat less, Kessler and University of Washington researchers concluded.
• Then Kessler culled data from a major study on food habits and health. Conditioned hypereaters reported feeling loss of control over food, a lack of satiety, and were preoccupied by food. Some 42 percent of them were obese compared to 18 percent without those behaviors, says Kessler, who estimates that up to 70 million people have some degree of conditioned hypereating.
• Finally, Yale University neuroscientist Dana Small had hypereaters smell chocolate and taste a chocolate milkshake inside a brain-scanning MRI machine. Rather than getting used to the aroma, as is normal, hypereaters found the smell more tantalizing with time. And drinking the milkshake didn't satisfy. The reward-anticipating region of their brains stayed switched on, so that another brain area couldn't say, "Enough!"

People who aren't overweight can be conditioned hypereaters, too, Kessler found — so it's possible to control.

Take Volkow, the chocolate-loving neuroscientist. She's lean, and a self-described compulsive exerciser. Physical activity targets the dopamine pathway, too, a healthy distraction.

Smoking didn't start to drop until society's view of it as glamorous and sexy started changing, to view the habit as deadly, Kessler notes.

Unhealthy food has changed in the other direction. Foods high in fat, sugar and salt tend to be cheap; they're widely sold; and advertising links them to good friends and good times, even as social norms changed to make snacking anytime, anywhere acceptable.

Train your brain — and your body

Retrain the brain to think, "I'll hate myself if I eat that," Kessler advises. Lay down new neural reward circuits by substituting something else you enjoy, like a bike ride or a healthier food.

Make rules to resist temptation: "I'm going to the mall but bypassing the food court."

And avoid cues for bad eating whenever possible. Always go for the nachos at your friends' weekend gathering spot? Start fresh at another restaurant.

"I've learned to eat things I like but things I can control," Kessler says. But he knows the old circuitry dies hard: "You stress me enough and I'll go pick up that bagel."

Copyright 2009 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.

FDA-approved stevia is touted as natural — but is it better than artificial?

Coca-Cola has added the new FDA-approved sweetener stevia to its Odwalla beverages. But despite its billing as a natural sweetener, it's not a risk-free solution for dieters, nutritionists say.

By Bridget Murray Law

msnbc.com contributor

updated 9:07 a.m. ET April 17, 2009

Is stevia, an extract 300 times more potent than sugar, the no-fat, no-calorie "natural" sweetener that soda and juice lovers have been thirsting for?

Since the Food and Drug Administration approved the use of rebaudioside A (Reb A) as a general purpose sweetener in December, major beverage marketers have been rushing new stevia-infused drinks into stores. Coca-Cola is using the stevia-derived sweetener Truvia in two of its Odwalla juice drinks and in the new Sprite Green. PepsiCo added its version of stevia to Sobe Lifewater drinks and has launched a new Tropicana orange juice, Trop50, containing 50 percent less sugar and calories.

The sweetener, which manufacturers claim is natural because it’s derived from the leaf of a South American shrub, has been used for years as a commercial sweetener in Japan and other Asian countries। It’s too soon to know whether American consumers will lap up its slightly licorice-y flavor, but nutritionists are already weighing in with their own verdict: Stevia is no risk-free holy grail for dieters.

Certainly, there's plenty to worry about when it comes to how many calories we guzzle each day. A recent study by researchers at Louisiana State University's School of Public Health found that liquid calories are a bigger problem than food when it comes to weight gain, and that sugar-sweetened beverages are the main culprit. What's worse, Americans consume an average of 20 teaspoons of added sugars a day, about twice as much as recommended, according to government reports.

But so far, there’s nothing to distinguish stevia from other sugar substitutes on the market, despite its boast about being natural, nutrition experts say. Stevia may have no calories, but you shouldn't make it a regular dietary staple, says New York City-based nutritionist Keri Gans, a spokesperson for the American Dietetic Association.

“Given our nation’s problem with obesity, stevia and other artificial sweeteners have a place for people who consume more calories than they should from sweets,” says Gans. “But artificial sweeteners should not take over your diet because that means you’re eating way too many processed foods.”

Back to nature?
Marketers counter that that stevia is as natural as sugar, despite a “purification” process that modifies the plant extract.

“Truvia is still all natural,” says Coca-Cola spokesman Ray Crockett. “It’s the same process cane sugar goes through.”

The new stevia extract is the only widely marketed sugar substitute derived from a shrub. Other commonly used sweeteners aspartame (Nutrasweet, Equal) and saccharin were developed artificially in labs. Sucralose (Splenda) is derived from sugar but is processed with chlorinated chemicals.

Just as cancer concerns have dogged the artificial sweeteners aspartame and saccharin, some researchers worry about stevia. In fact, the FDA rejected stevia petitions in the 1990s after research linked the plant with infertility in rats and cancer in the lab. The agency says the currently marketed reformulation, Reb A, is “generally recognized as safe.”

Chemistry researcher John Pezzuto isn’t convinced. He cites a study he conducted that suggests a certain strain of stevia can mutate DNA, a possible cancer risk.

“Given that there’s the potential for a mutagenic response, why take the risk with stevia?” asks Pezzuto, dean of the University of Hawaii at Hilo College of Pharmacy. “I will not be consuming any myself.”

owever, another researcher, genetic toxicologist David Brusick dismisses Pezzuto’s findings.

“That was an in vitro test, done out of the mainstream of tests,” says Brusick, an independent consultant formerly with biopharmaceutical drug development company Covance Laboratories in Vienna, Va. “Studies in animals and people have found no such mutagenic effects.”

Brusick reached his conclusions after reviewing studies for the FDA’s stevia approval. Stevia-associated companies had hired him to conduct the evaluation.

Sticky problem with sweeteners
While nothing's been proved as far as cancer risks, there's a more immediate catch when it comes to stevia. Critics wonder whether it may also stoke hunger, just like other artificial sweeteners.

Studies indicate that consuming something with a sweet taste primes the body for a calorie delivery that doesn’t happen. As a result eaters seek more sweets to satisfy the body's cravings. Recent research also found that sucralose may alter people’s gut bugs in ways that promote weight gain.

None of these metabolic questions have yet been explored with stevia, according to experts.

While rats only develop such problems after ingesting large quantities of these sweeteners, it's not unexpected that at least some people would overindulge with with stevia-sweetened products, notes Orlando-based nutritionist Tara Gidus, spokesperson for the American Dietetic Association.

Want to get buff, ladies? Switch contraceptives

updated 1:15 p.m. ET April 17, 2009

CHICAGO - Young women seeking a sculpted, muscular silhouette may want to avoid taking oral contraceptives, U.S. researchers said on Friday.

They found women who were not taking birth control pills gained 60 percent more muscle mass after a 10-week weight training program than those who were.

The study, led by Chang-Woock Lee and Steven Riechman of Texas A&M University in College Station and Mark Newman of the University of Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania, will be presented at the American Physiological Society meeting in New Orleans this weekend।

The researchers studied 73 generally healthy women between 18 and 31 who completed a whole-body resistance exercise training program. About half took the pill and half did not.

The women were encouraged to eat at least half a gram of protein per pound of body weight each day — about a third more than recommended by U.S. nutritional guidelines — to ensure they got enough protein and calories to build muscle.

Both groups exercised three times a week under the supervision of exercise physiologists, performing the same number and intensity of exercises.

At the end of the 10 weeks, the women who were not taking oral contraceptives had built significantly more lean muscle.

Smart Fitness — By Jacqueline Stenson Getty Images stock Want a swimsuit bod? 6 moves you’re not doing It’s April. Swimsuit season is fast approaching. And maybe you haven’t exactly been doing enough to work off that winter flab. But it’s not too late to lose a noticeable amount of weight. Dance like the stars — don’t get hurt like them Exercising etiquette: Don’t be a gym diva Don't hurt yourself: Avoid 5 fitness faux pas Work out for less: Shape up and save in 2009

And blood samples before and after the training period showed the women on the pill had lower levels of muscle-building hormones such as testosterone and far higher levels of muscle-breaking hormones such as cortisol.

In a statement the team said that oral contraceptives appear to have a negative effect on women's ability to build lean muscle, but they added that future studies were needed to explain why.

Health

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For other uses, see Health (disambiguation).

The generally accepted definition of health is "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity", used by the World Health Organization (WHO) since 1948. ^[1][2]

In 1986, the WHO in the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion said health is "a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities". Classification systems such as the WHO Family of International Classifications (WHO-FIC), which is composed of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) also define health.

Overall health is achieved through a combination of physical, mental, emotional, and social well-being.

Aspects of health

Physical health

Physical fitness refers to good body health, and is the result of regular exercise, proper diet and nutrition, and proper rest for physical recovery.

A strong indicator of the health of localized population is their height or weight, which generally increases with improved nutrition and health care. This is also influenced by the standard of living and quality of life. Genetics also plays a major role in people's height. The study of human growth, its regulators, and implications is known as Auxology.

Mental health

Mental health refers to an individual's emotional and psychological well-being. "A state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is able to use his or her cognitive and emotional capabilities, function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life."

One way to think about mental health is by looking at how effectively and successfully a person functions. Feeling capable and competent; being able to handle normal levels of stress, maintain satisfying relationships, and lead an independent life; and being able to "bounce back," or recover from difficult situations, are all signs of mental health. The generally accepted definition of health is "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity", used by the World Health Organization (WHO) since 1948. [1][2]

In 1986, the WHO in the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion said health is "a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities". Classification systems such as the WHO Family of International Classifications (WHO-FIC), which is composed of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) also define health.

Overall health is achieved through a combination of physical, mental, emotional, and social well-being

Determinants of health

Main article: Social determinants of health

The LaLonde report suggested that there are four general determinants of health including human biology, environment, lifestyle, and healthcare services.^[3] Thus, health is maintained and improved not only through the advancement and application of health science, but also through the efforts and intelligent lifestyle choices of the individual and society.

A major environmental factor is water quality, especially for the health of infants and children in developing countries.^[4]

Studies show that in developed countries, the lack of neighborhood recreational space that includes the natural environment leads to lower levels of neighborhood satisfaction and higher levels of obesity; therefore, lower overall well being.^[5] Therefore, the positive psychological benefits of natural space in urban neighborhoods should be taken into account in public policy and land use.

Health maintenance

Main article: Self care

Achieving health and remaining healthy is an active process. Effective strategies for staying healthy and improving one's health include the following elements:

Nutrition

Main article: Nutrition

Personal health depends partially on the social structure of one's life. The maintenance of strong social relationships is linked to good health conditions, longevity, productivity, and a positive attitude. This is due to the fact that positive social interaction as viewed by the participant increases many chemical levels in the brain which are linked to personality and intelligence traits.

Sports nutrition

Main article: Sports nutrition

Sports nutrition focuses the link between dietary supplements and athletic performance. One goal of sports nutrition is to maintain glycogen levels and prevent glycogen depletion. Another is to optimize energy levels and muscle tone. An athlete's strategy for winning an event may include a schedule for the entire season of what to eat, when to eat it, and in what precise quantities (before, during, after, and between workouts and events).

Hygiene

Main article: Hygiene

Hygiene is the practice of keeping the body clean to prevent infection and illness, and the avoidance of contact with infectious agents. Hygiene practices include bathing, brushing and flossing teeth, washing hands especially before eating, washing food before it is eaten, cleaning food preparation utensils and surfaces before and after preparing meals, and many others. This may help prevent infection and illness. By cleaning the body, dead skin cells are washed away with the germs, reducing their chance of entering the body.

Stress management

Main article: Stress management

Prolonged psychological stress may negatively impact health, such as by weakening the immune system and mind. Stress management is the application of methods to either reduce stress or increase tolerance to stress. Relaxation techniques are physical methods used to relieve stress. Psychological methods include cognitive therapy, meditation, and positive thinking which work by reducing response to stress. Improving relevant skills and abilities builds confidence, which also reduces the stress reaction to situations where those skills are applicable.

Reducing uncertainty, by increasing knowledge and experience related to stress-causing situations, has the same effect. Learning to cope with problems better, such as improving problem solving and time management skills, may also reduce stressful reaction to problems. Repeatedly facing an object of one's fears may also desensitize the fight-or-flight response with respect to that stimulus—e.g., facing bullies may reduce fear of bullies.

Prolonged hours of surfing on the Internet is a major concern that can affect the eyes significantly. White backgrounds on computer screens with a viewing distance of less than 14 inches is known to increase strain, mental fatigue and temporary di-chromatic visions in a normal healthy human being. Trying to opt for black or any non-white backgrounds can help in reducing eye strain in front of PCs. While Black will also eat up the energy consumption of your computer screen, Green is recommended as the best option to use as backgrounds in webpages. ( color code # 2F6533 is the right median with soothing wavelength of 540nm.)

Health care

Main article: Health care

See also: #Public health

Health care is the prevention, treatment, and management of illness and the preservation of mental and physical well being through the services offered by the medical, nursing, and allied health professions.

Workplace wellness programs

Main article: Workplace wellness

Workplace wellness programs are recognized by an increasingly large number of companies for their value in improving the health and well-being of their employees, and for increasing morale, loyalty, and productivity. Workplace wellness programs can include things like onsite fitness centers, health presentations, wellness newsletters, access to health coaching, tobacco cessation programs and training related to nutrition, weight and stress management. Other programs may include health risk assessments, health screenings and body mass index monitoring.

Public health

Main article: Public health

Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organised efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals." It is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a pandemic). Public health has many sub-fields, but is typically divided into the categories of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental, social and behavioral health, and occupational health, are also important fields in public health.

The focus of public health intervention is to prevent rather than treat a disease through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behaviors. In addition to these activities, in many cases treating a disease can be vital to preventing it in others, such as during an outbreak of an infectious disease. Vaccination programs and distribution of condoms are examples of public health measures.

Role of science in health

Main article: Health science

Health science is the branch of science focused on health, and it includes many subdisciplines. There are two approaches to health science: the study and research of the human body and health-related issues to understand how humans (and animals) function, and the application of that knowledge to improve health and to prevent and cure diseases.

Where health knowledge comes from

Health research builds primarily on the basic sciences of biology, chemistry, and physics as well as a variety of multidisciplinary fields (for example medical sociology). Some of the other primarily research-oriented fields that make exceptionally significant contributions to health science are biochemistry, epidemiology, and genetics.

Putting health knowledge to use

Applied health sciences also endeavor to better understand health, but in addition they try to directly improve it. Some of these are: biomedical engineering, biotechnology, nursing, nutrition, pharmacology, pharmacy, public health (see above), psychology, physical therapy, and medicine. The provision of services to maintain or improve people's health is referred to as health care (see above).